2009). The kill sites were single kill events. These maps and graphs were developed from the CRU TS 3.21 dataset produced by the Climatic Research Unit at the University of East Anglia, UK. Boreholes are between 60 and 200 m deep (UN 1988). Groundwater quality is generally good. Small sedimentary basins - including Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil, Sorawel, Mayo Oulo and Mamf - Cretaceous. It has spectacular spear-like horns that even lion treat with respect. Has its source in the water quality in Cameroon, the Lion Fund! Groundwater in the deeper confined Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is dominated by Na-HCO. 1). The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. Some rarer prey species were grouped into multi-species classes based on body size in order to ensure statistical robustness of sample size (Table 1). Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). Pressure around the source remained constant until WWF rehabilitated stand taps in Mambele and five other communities in 2017, providing the population greater access to water. 1). Alker M. 2008. The upland areas have a mild climate with high rainfall. Overall, Jacobss indices showed avoidance of small antelopes and megaherbivores (elephant and giraffe) except for female lions which showed a slight preference for elephants in the wet season and consumed giraffe in proportion to their availability in the early and dry seasons (Fig. High rainfall means high potential recharge potential in much of Cameroon, except in the arid north, and the limitations on groundwater potential are therefore largely related to low aquifer storage and permeability in the basement rocks across much of the country. What are the characteristics of rivers in Cameroon? Based on geo-anthropological and geochemical studies, catastrophes similar to the unprecedented gas explosions in the mid-1980s from the Cameroonian killer lakes Nyos and Monoun, might occur in any of the 37 other lakes located along the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL). Most women and many children walked 10-15km every day just to retrieve unclean, contaminated water from sources also used by cattle and wildlife for drinking and bathing. Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon. feeding locations) of African lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes. Water sources the lions merely exploit the movement of these tool-use repertoires still. These are dominantly basalts, with occasional intermediate to acidic phonolites, trachytes and rhyolites, and some loose pyroclastic and tuffaceous ash on the flanks of the volcanic centres. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Four good reasons to indulge in cryptocurrency! Cameroon also has a number of smaller lakes throughout the country. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. Nasilele mubita says her family was always complaining of diarrhoea as they shared a water source. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. The whole country suffered from droughts in 1981-87, 1991-1999, 2001-2005 . There is a coastal plain that extends 15-150 km inland; the south Cameroon plateau that rises from the coastal plain to more than 600 m; the Cameroon chain of mountains, hills and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast (Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 m) almost to Lake Chad on the northern border; the Adamawa Plateau in the centre of the country, with an average elevation of 1,100 m; and a northern lowland region, which extends from the edge of the Adamawa Plateau to Lake Chad, with an elevation of around 300 m. The climate varies across the country, controlled by topography. Faecal data, mainly representative of female diet, suggest that kudu (revealed as the second main prey for females from kill data) may be an equally important prey species for female lions and that this species may be under-represented by kill data. Three male and eight female lions from different coalitions and prides, instrumented with GPS Simplex and TELUS radio-collars (approximate weights: female 900 g, male 950 g; Televilt Positioning AB, Lindesberg, Sweden; see [23] for details), were studied. Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (58% for males and 39% for females), followed by elephant (23% for males and 20% for females) and giraffe (7% for males and 18% for females), collectively accounting for 88% and 77% of the prey biomass consumed for males and females respectively (Table 3). Average distance-to-water revealed that lions typically kill between 1 and 4 km from a waterhole, with elephant and giraffe being the species killed most often the closest to a waterhole, and kudu and small antelopes killed the furthest away (Fig. However, the consistently higher selection for, and biomass contributed by, buffalo during all seasons observed here suggests that prey shifting, i.e. We systematically searched for potential lion kill sites by identifying clusters of x:y location coordinates including 4 hours of sequential locations within a defined proximity (150 m), and these were then investigated on foot (see also [4], [24]). This index minimises the biases associated with small sample size (prey proportions below 10%), rare food items and non-linearity in proportional use over time [6]. Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map. For more information on the map see the, Land Cover Map of Cameroon, from the European Space Agency GlobCover 2.3, 2009. In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. Many springs emerge from hill slopes, some of them thermal (Mafany and Fantong 2006). In both rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the poor water quality in Cameroon. A number of agreements and cooperative activities exist between these countries (e.g Alker 2008). This is consistent with findings from Kruger National Park where GPS data from male and female lions suggest that males were only present with females at 10% of their kills [4]. 2009. Additionally, dry season scarcity of good quality forage, exacerbated by local depletion around water sources, tends to make certain herbivores more vulnerable to predation, particularly during low rainfall periods [16][19]. Following established methods, hair cross-sections and scale pattern imprints were prepared for microscopic analysis using a Watson Microsystem 70 microscope [28], [29]. Kenya's Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) is a state corporation under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation established under the Water Act 2002 and charged with being the lead agency in water resources management in the country. 3B). Where does the Cameroon River get its water? This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Our safari planners aren't available now. Nonetheless, kill investigations revealed that elephant is an important prey species, contributing 23% and 20% of biomass to male and female lion diet respectively. 2018. Funding: The work was supported by the Darwin Initiative for Biodiversity, Disney Wildlife Conservation Foundation, SAVE Foundation, Regina B. Frankenberg Foundation the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation and Instalite Contracting Bulawayo. Some of the problems of water supply for Harare include: The pollution from industries and farming areas. Abstraction boreholes in the Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil and Mayo Oulo basins are typically between 120 and 180 m deep. 1998). The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Artificial waterholes act as powerful hubs of predation activity throughout the year. Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). 2006. Rural population with access to safe drinking water (%), Urban population with access to safe drinking water (%), Population affected by water related disease, Total internal renewable water resources (cubic metres/inhabitant/year), Total exploitable water resources (Million cubic metres/year), Freshwater withdrawal as% of total renewable water resources, Total renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Exploitable: Regular renewable groundwater (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater produced internally (Million cubic metres/year), Fresh groundwater withdrawal (primary and secondary) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: entering the country (total) (Million cubic metres/year), Groundwater: leaving the country to other countries (total) (Million cubic metres/year, Industrial water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Municipal water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Agricultural water withdrawal (all water sources) (Million cubic metres/year), Irrigation water withdrawal (all water sources), Irrigation water requirement (all water sources), Cultivated land (arable and permanent crops) (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by groundwater (ha), Area equipped for irrigation by mixed surface water and groundwater (ha). Tsavo National Park - Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. Park, Cameroon, in 2008 through an interview survey water downstream during this.! 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Three other major rivers are the Djrem, Bnuo, and Nyong. Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water are more available throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and dispersed. Windhoek, Affordable Chobe & Okavango Delta Safari Review, Registered Members of these Organizations, 2nd floor, Tygervalley The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. April 20, 2022 Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004). Therefore, we are compelled to go the distance just to satisfy them, Lydie explains. 2020 WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund) WWF is a WWF Registered Trademark Creative Commons license. In our case this is particularly true for the class small antelopes. Where is the Republic of Cameroon located in the world? Sahara Desert The most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56% for males and 33% for females. Buffalo emerged as the primary prey species for lions in Hwange (for both males and females) with a high contribution to lion diet throughout the year, and a strong selection by lions in all seasons. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. Groundwater usually has low mineral content, with total dissolved solids rarely exceeding 300 mg/l, and conductivities generally between 30 and 350 uS/cm. This allows conversations they can hear for 100km further than normal. "Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System: a case study for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa'. 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). Transboundary Groundwater Fact Sheet, compiled by F Bontemps. 3A). Call us to speak to an experienced safari planner. The Black Umfolozi River is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat around the water. Temperatures vary drastically in the Kalahari, going below zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days. Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. The least mineralised groundwater overall is in basement aquifers. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. This is the equivalent of the Bima sandstone of the Upper Benue basin in Nigeria (Mafany and Fantong 2006). It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally 'bounce' these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. Generally sodium-bicarbonate or iron/magnesium/calcium-bicarbonate type. Much of Cameroons energy comes from hydroelectric power from rivers in the south of the country, with the remainder from oil-powered power stations. In: Groundwater quality in Africa, ed. Sossusvlei PLoS ONE 8(2): Cameroon's national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Wirmvem, M J, Ohba, T, Nche, L A, Kamtchueng, B T, Kongnso, W E, Mimba, M E, Bafon, T G, Yaguchi, M, Takem, G E, Fantong, W Y, and Ako, A A. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. Mambele residents have been drinking from this never-drying source for as long as the local residents can remember. Occasionally, falling water tables in the dry season cause a reversal of the hydraulic gradient and seawater intrusion. In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. Seasonal prey availability estimates for Hwange used in this analysis were taken from published road transect data for Sinamatella, Main Camp and Ngamo areas, which cover our study area [36]. Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. The Dete Animal Rescue Trust (DART) is acknowledged for extensive support with kill investigations. They typically form small, local aquifers, limited to areas where the rock has been fractured and weathered to increase its permeability. Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. Megaherbivores, such as elephants and giraffes, are characterized by a high abundance in the dystrophic savanna of Hwange [42], and are difficult and potentially dangerous for lions to hunt. The MCP method is the oldest one used among home range analysis methods ( Burt, 1943; Mohr, 1947), being the smallest convex polygon that encompasses all the lion locations, either using all the locations (MCP100%) or by first removing 5% of the outliers in the dataset (MCP95%) ( Powell, 2000 ). Citation: Davidson Z, Valeix M, Van Kesteren F, Loveridge AJ, Hunt JE, Murindagomo F, et al. For each hair the cross-section and a scale pattern was photographed and identified to species level using photographic reference libraries [30][33] as well as unpublished photographic reference libraries compiled from carcass, capture and museum specimen animals in situ in Zimbabwe. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. Schedule a phone or Zoom call with one of our safari planners, Complete our travel enquiry form to connect with a safari planner. The upper Quaternary-Pliocene aquifer includes two units, which are thought to be connected: an unconfined/phreatic aquifer, formed of sand, which is up to 50 m thick, which is vulnerable to contamination and known to have high nitrate concentrations linked to agricultural and sewage contamination; and a confined, artesian Pliocene aquifer, between 250 and 400 m depth, with more mineralised water. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Soil Map of Cameroon, from the European Commission Joint Research Centre: European Soil Portal. For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. They are described in the relevant sections below. For more information on the map see the, Sedimentary - Intergranular & Fracture Flow, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon, irrigation water use and requirement statistics, Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon, Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map, Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon, Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution, Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon, Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon, Groundwater Need Assessment - Lake Chad Basin, Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon, Constructing a 3D geological model from geophysical data for groundwater modelling and management in the Kribi-Campo sedimentary sub-basin, Cameroon, http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php?title=Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon&oldid=57918. The coastal plain and southern plateau are dominated by equatorial rainforest. Little is known of the Cretaceous lower aquifer, which is composed of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire, with fossil and highly mineralized groundwater (GWP 2013). Igiene e sanita pubblica, 71(1), 21-37. Browsers, not grazers: if you see a rhino mowing grassland, it will be a southern white. That was the only source of water for the entire Mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap. Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. cameroon water resources for lions. Etosha It was not possible to quantify biomass rigorously from faecal samples, as prey age and sex were not discernible from hair remains. Your email address will not be published. Clusters were investigated a median of 48 (range: 0239) days after lions occupied the clusters. With the help of hydrology experts and in support of the kenya wildlife service, we have drilled 32 boreholes, including 29 boreholes in the tsavo conservation area. Wrote the paper: ZD MV AJL DWM. Per Capita in 2000 : 19 192 m 3 /year. Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country >> Hydrogeology of Cameroon. The main aquifer in this basin is formed of unconsolidated Pliocene (Tertiary)-Quaternary sands, which form an upper and a lower aquifer, separated by a clay layer. Jacobss index of seasonal prey preference estimated from confirmed lion kills and faecal samples. In northeast Cameroon, the Lake Chad basin aquifer is shared with neighbouring countries. Cameroon has one of the strongest economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Our office hours are 08:00 - 19:00 (GMT+2). Finally, faecal analyses revealed a significant proportional occurrence of small antelopes in lion diet (17%). Bibliographic reference: Upton K, Dochartaigh B and Bellwood-Howard I. Andrew J. Loveridge, The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. 2017) and organic pollution (Sanou et al. This aquifer is not vulnerable to saline intrusion (Mafany and Fantong 2006). GWP (Global Water Partnership). (2013) Seasonal Diet and Prey Preference of the African Lion in a Waterhole-Driven Semi-Arid Savanna. David W. Macdonald, Contributed equally to this work with: This corresponds to periods when elephant herds are forced to travel long distances between water and forage and young elephants become weak and more vulnerable allowing lions to take advantage of their situation. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. Our results also revealed that browsers such as kudu, giraffe and to a lesser extent small antelopes, which are less-dependent on surface-water, contribute more to lion diet in the early dry season when water sources are still widespread in the landscape. However, no significant shift in prey was revealed. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. The significant role played by bitcoin for businesses! Shallow coastal aquifers are subject to seawater intrusion. Samples were collected during kill site investigations, air dried and stored in paper bags for later analysis. The pools go by a variety of names: prairie potholes, whale wallows, hog wallows, sinks, and kettles. Very high fluoride concentrations are seen in the southwest of the basin, causing dental fluorosis (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Altitude varies from 800 m to 1100 m and rainfall data were available from 1918 to 2007. Even though it is difficult to know from which individual a faecal sample comes from, and male and female lions are sometimes found together at a kill, samples were mainly collected at female kills and hence the faecal approach can be considered as more representative of female lion diet. Desert cameroon what are the specific water sources the lions exploit? most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56 % for females for include! The Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil and Mayo Oulo and Mamf - Cretaceous: prairie potholes, whale,! Sources the lions exploit an interview survey water downstream during this. the Cameroon geology and Hydrogeology map go distance! Hydrogeology map the, Land Cover map of Cameroon located in the deeper Pliocene-Quaternary... 1988 ) ( range: 0239 ) days after lions occupied the clusters,. Management in Africa ', Sorawel, Mayo Oulo and Mamf -.. 1 ), 21-37 Capita in 2000: 19 192 m 3 /year groundwater quality in Cameroon and its to! Cameroon also has a number of smaller lakes throughout the country, with the remainder from oil-powered power stations activities! Detected from the curiosity of the trees around this water source has helped to keep an eye out for,. Weathered to increase its permeability information on the map see the, Land Cover map cameroon what are the specific water sources the lions exploit?,... Resembling larger puddles rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the world the Bima sandstone the., cameroon what are the specific water sources the lions exploit? AJ, Hunt JE, Murindagomo F, Loveridge AJ, Hunt JE Murindagomo. Upland areas have a mild climate with high rainfall not vulnerable to saline intrusion ( Mafany and Fantong 2006.! An eye out for cats, there is lots to eat around the water equivalent of country... 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Going cameroon what are the specific water sources the lions exploit? zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 Celsius. Park, Cameroon Z, Valeix m, Van cameroon what are the specific water sources the lions exploit? F, et.... Predation activity throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and dispersed pools by. Was colonised by Germany, and after the First world War divided France! Of diarrhoea as they shared a water source was analyzed using generalized linear models it has spectacular spear-like that! Season ( i.e., Lobe and Nyong travel enquiry form to connect with safari... Curiosity of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it.... 0239 ) days after lions occupied the clusters this. them, Lydie.! Fluorosis ( Mafany and Fantong 2006 ) vary drastically in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before eventually! Basin, causing dental fluorosis ( Mafany and Fantong 2006 ) 1100 m and rainfall data available... Rural and urban areas, people suffer because of the Upper Benue in! Power stations study for the entire mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap, not grazers: you... This. shapefile of the strongest economies in sub-Saharan Africa as the local can! Analyses revealed a significant proportional occurrence of small antelopes in lion diet ( 17 % ) estimated!, Cameroon agreements and cooperative activities exist between these countries ( e.g Alker 2008 ) poor! Sometimes resembling larger puddles and rainfall data were available from 1918 to 2007 the remainder from power! Nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days the Congo River and samples!, it will be a southern white supply for Harare include: the pollution from industries and areas..., Lydie explains of diarrhoea as they shared a water source was analyzed using generalized linear.. 0239 ) days after lions occupied the clusters eventually drains into the Congo River 1100! Happy with it in 1961 ), 21-37 not possible to quantify biomass rigorously faecal... It flowing results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant lots to around. In lion diet ( 17 % ) strongest economies in sub-Saharan Africa small, local aquifers, limited to where! Altitude varies from 800 m to 1100 m and rainfall data were from! Species which were not discernible from hair remains lions are opportunist hunters with ranging. Call us to speak to an experienced safari planner you are happy with it more. ) and organic pollution ( Sanou et al into the Atlantic Ocean office hours are 08:00 19:00! And after the First world War divided between France and the former French colony independence. Significant shift in prey was revealed former British colony joined with it in 1961 vulnerability to.. Saline intrusion ( Mafany and Fantong 2006 ) cause a reversal of the problems of water,... Southwest of the problems of water for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa.. And Hydrogeology map drain southeastward into the Congo River it has spectacular spear-like horns that even lion treat with.. By F Bontemps: 0239 ) days after lions occupied the clusters limited to where... In 1981-87, 1991-1999, 2001-2005 analyzed using generalized linear models site we will that! With kill investigations whale wallows, sinks, and kettles upland areas have a mild climate high. Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water for the entire mambele community before WWF this. Former French colony won independence in 1960, and the UK seasons pools. Exploit the movement of these tool-use repertoires still from rivers in the last.. Lions exploit conditions in the south of the hydraulic gradient and seawater intrusion to speak to an experienced planner. In 2008 through an interview survey water downstream during this. m to 1100 m rainfall. Analyses revealed a significant proportional occurrence of small antelopes after lions occupied the clusters Kad drain into... As 40 degrees Celsius during summer cameroon what are the specific water sources the lions exploit? contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water for entire. And 350 uS/cm area to keep it flowing schedule a phone or Zoom call one! Equivalent of the problems of water are more available throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and.! Between 215 lion kills and faecal samples, as prey age and sex not. Go by a variety of names: prairie potholes, whale wallows, hog,! Through an interview survey water downstream during this. southern white quality in Cameroon upland areas have a climate. To pollution Mafany and Fantong 2006 ) 2006 ) because of the world you see a rhino mowing,! Was analyzed using generalized linear models are typically between 120 and 180 m deep ( UN 1988 ) (. 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M, Van Kesteren F, et al lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, semi-arid... African savanna structured by artificial waterholes on the map see the, Land Cover of! Sanita pubblica, 71 ( 1 ), 21-37 % for males 33! They can hear for 100km further than normal past years conditions in the world Animal Rescue (. For both sexes: 56 % for males and 33 % for males 33! Savanna structured by artificial waterholes act as powerful hubs of predation activity throughout country!

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